Pulses in Bakery

Baked goods are a staple component of diets around the world. A study of nutrient intakes from diets as reported by Canadian adults found that as the percentage of total daily protein intake from plant sources increased, the primary protein source was from cereal-based food sources (breads, rolls, crackers, and grains) and the intake of other plant protein sources such as legumes was low (Fabek et al., 2021). It is well known that plant protein sources are typically deficient in one or more of the indispensable amino acids. Relying on one type of plant protein introduces risk for groups consuming higher proportions of their daily total protein intake from plant sources.

Reformulating cereal foods with pulse flours is an immense opportunity to improve the protein quality of baked products and address potential dietary intake concerns because of their significantly higher protein contents and the complementary nature of their amino acid profiles.

The addition of pulse ingredients to cereal foods can also complement the nutritional profile of products through combined increases in fibre, folate, iron, potassium, and other micronutrients (Marinangeli, 2020). A study examining the effect of reformulated traditional pan bread with 15% whole yellow pea flour not only reported significant improvements in the nutritional quality of the product but also noted a 4% decrease in the CO2 equivalent per kg of food (Chaudhary et al., 2018).

Increasing the inclusion level of pulse flour typically results in proportional increases in nutritional quality. However, this may be at the expense of dough-handling properties and machinability. The higher protein and fibre present in pulse flours may reduce free water available in the system or physically interfere with dough handling. The reduced dough hydration and development may result in baked goods with a more densely packed microstructure exhibited as a reduction in product volume accompanied by increased product firmness.

However, many studies have identified substitution rates in which the nutrition profile is successfully enhanced with minimal effects on handling, product quality, and sensory properties. Specific inclusion rates based on the category of baked goods are highlighted in the sections below.

Pulse flours have successfully substituted up to 30% of wheat flour in the formulation of Yeast-leavened breads. Typical formulations comprise of simple flour, yeast and salt but many other additional ingredients from sugars and fats to dough conditioners and improvers have also been evaluated. Hydration rates for pulse-containing bread doughs are variable depending on the formulation, pulse type, flour composition and particle size. A breakdown of bread formulations and hydration levels according to pulse type has been provided in the table below.

Adding pulse flours to pan breads successfully improves the nutritional profile relative to control formulations through increases in total protein and complex carbohydrates such as fibre, resistant starch and slowly digestible starch. For instance, 20% pea flour inclusion in a wheat-based bread increased protein by up to 25% and fibre by up to 90% (Figure 1, 2, Kotsiou et al., 2021). A study evaluating 16% inclusion of dehulled green lentil flour reduced the glycemic index in vivo by 13%, changing the GI category of the focaccia bread from "medium" to "low" (Figure 3, Fujiwara et al., 2017).

Ns = not specified

Research conducted by Kohajdove et al. (2013) reformulated baked rolls using 10-30% lentil and small white bean flour. The addition of pulse flour increased farinograph water absorption level and dough development time but resulted in decreased dough stability. Physical parameters were negatively affected, including decreases in volume, specific volume, and cambering. The highest acceptability and physical parameters values were achieved using a 10% pulse blend. Alternatively, Muldabekove et al. (2022) evaluated the use of dry sugar beet powder, chickpea and mung bean flour to replace refined sugar in buns. Successful formulations were obtained using 10% chickpea, 5% mung bean and 9% dry sugar beet powder, where the addition of pulse flours resulted in an overall 9-30% reduction in overall bun processing time due to its effect on dough preparation and baking.

The addition of pulse flours to sponge and layer cake formulations can improve nutritional and structural properties, with limited detectable differences in sensory characteristics, depending on pulse type and batter mixing method.

Gomez et al. (2012) successfully substituted up to 50% of wheat flour in sponge cake and 25% in layer cake with yellow pea flour while maintaining similar specific volume and firmness to the control and minimal differences in sensory quality (Figure 6, 7 below). Layer cakes were found to be more sensitive to detectable differences in sensory characteristics as a result of pea flour inclusion. Gallego et al. (2022) substituted 50% of wheat with chickpea flour in layer cake formulations and was able to obtain similar specific volume and hardness to the control with only minor decreases in the overall acceptability as determined by a 100-person volunteer consumer panel.

In a specific investigation on off-odour development in cakes, Krause et al. (2022) replaced 25% wheat flour in sponge cake formulations with chickpea, green lentil, lupin, green pea and yellow pea flours. The reformulated cakes produced desirable nutritional and structural properties, where odour profiles of cakes were influenced by pulse type and the batter mixing stage; the latter directly related to catalyzing lipid oxidation reactions associated with beany and bitter notes. The same research group later identified batter mixing to be a significant control step in the odour profile of resulting cakes. Interestingly, the addition of most pulse flours to sponge cakes resulted in an increased volume that was attributed to the high protein content and accompanying emulsifying properties which are important in cake batter structure development.

Pulse flours have been incorporated at up to 50% substitution rates in cookie and wafer formulations with significant improvements to the nutritional profile (Figure 8, 9). Pulse flour type, inclusion and particle size have all been reported to significantly affect quality attributes such as cookie weight, thickness, width, and hardness (Zucco et al. 2011). While the inclusion of pulse flours typically resulted in increased cookie hardness and height with a reduction in the spread, coarse pulse flours (90% of particles below 415-440 mm) were reported to have opposite effects on weight and thickness, producing softer cookies with greater spread than control formulations. (Figure 10)

Research conducted at the University of Manitoba evaluated the application of coarsely and finely ground dehulled green lentil, navy and pinto bean flours at rates of 25-100% in pita bread (Borsuk et al., 2012). Even at 100% inclusion, pulse formulations successfully formed pockets and were deemed suitable for pita processing.

At 25% inclusion, navy bean and pinto bean flours performed as well as or superior to the control based on the physical, textural, colour and sensory properties of the final product (Figure 11).

A later study evaluated the use of raw, infrared heated and roasted whole yellow pea, navy bean and faba beans flours in tortilla and pita applications (Frohlich et al., 2021). The heat treatments applied had minimal effects on end-product quality and were successfully able to reduce bitter and beany flavours commonly associated with pulses (Figure 12). This resulted in a higher purchasing intent for tortillas and pitas produced from infrared-heated pea and navy beans when evaluated by a consumer panel composed of 80 panellists.

Pulse flours have been incorporated into sourdough bread both directly into the fermented starter culture or as an additional ingredient to the bread formulation during dough mixing. Research by Rizello et al. (2014) evaluated both methods of preparation using a 15% blend of chickpea, lentil and bean flours at equal ratios. Authors reported improvements to the overall nutritional profile of the bread including an increase in protein, crude fibre, total free amino acids and antioxidant activity relative to the wheat-based, yeast-leavened control bread (Figure 14, 15, 16). Texture, image and sensory evaluation of all sourdoughs displayed good acceptability, with the fermented wheat/pulse blend starter culture exhibiting minimal differences in quality compared to the control.

A similar study evaluating the incorporation of 30% raw and fermented, dehulled faba bean flours did not note any severe negative effects of its inclusion on the technological performance of sourdough breads other than a reduction in loaf volume (Coda et al., 2017). However, fermenting faba-wheat blends as part of the starter culture resulted in sourdough breads with significantly higher in vitro protein digestibility, protein efficiency ratio and a reduced predicted glycemic index (Figure 13). Bourre et al. (2019) identified the most acceptable flavour and quality characteristics in breads produced with a 25% inclusion of sourdough culture that had been fermented for 1hr. Interestingly, the evaluation of the fermented and subsequently frozen sourdough culture containing 25 and 50% chickpea flour found that chickpea addition significantly decreased the percentage of freezable water content in the dough (Figure 17) (Ozulku et al., 2017). This limited destruction of the gluten network and the injuring of yeast cells as a result of ice crystal formation, resulting in improved texture after freezing. The benefit of this was demonstrated after baking the frozen doughs, in which the volume of control sourdough formulations decreased by 17% after freezing, where no significant changes occurred in chickpea-containing breads (Figure 18). Further research is warranted to elucidate the effects of pulse flour inclusion on quality retention in frozen doughs.

Boulemkahel et al. (2022) evaluated the use of ~33% faba bean flour in the development of additive-free and gluten-free breads in combination with raw and low-pressure homogenized long and medium-grained rice varieties. Homogenization treatment of rice flours resulted in improved bread texture characteristics including decreased hardness and increased cohesiveness, resilience, crumb structure and shape. Another study evaluated the use of 50% raw or fermented faba bean flour in corn starch-based breads (Sozer et al. 2019).

Regardless of pre-treatment, the inclusion of faba bean flour resulted in greater bread volume, porosity and softer texture relative to the 37% soy flour control formulations. In addition, fermentation of faba beans increased the in vitro protein digestibility of the gluten-free breads (Figure 19). Santos et al. (2018) evaluated chickpea flour alone or in combination with cassava starch, maize starch, potato starch and rice flour in the development of gluten-free bread.

Formulations containing solely 100% chickpea flour alone had the highest volume, crumb firmness and lowest crumb moisture compared to breads containing any other single base ingredient. However, loaf volumes of chickpea flour-based breads were positively influenced by the inclusion of either 25% potato or cassava starches. These breads displayed similar overall acceptability scores to wheat-only controls and superior nutrition to a white, gluten-free bread control formulated from rice and potato starch.

Wesley et al. (2021) evaluated gluten-free biscuits produced with various flour blends using raw and cooked white bean flour in combination with brown, polished, and cooked polished rice. At least two of the rice/bean biscuits developed displayed similar physicochemical properties to the whole wheat flour control. Cooking the bean flour was found to improve the nutritional profile closer to that of the wheat control with higher overall acceptance. The highest acceptability score and purchasing intent by consumers was found for biscuits formulated with a blend of cooked bean flour, brown rice and polished rice flour (Figure 21).

Schmelter et al. (2021) evaluated six faba bean varieties in the production of gluten-free cookies. No differences in baking loss or volume were noted. However, faba bean cookies had a harder texture than the wheat-only control. Because of the flavour notes and darker colour of faba bean cookies, authors suggested that acceptable products could be produced using dehulled faba bean flour with additional flavour- and colour-intense ingredients (eg. cocoa) which could mask the effects of faba bean inclusion. Hajas et al. (2022) evaluated five differently coloured lentils in cookies compared to a rice flour control formulation. Lentil cookies were generally flatter and firmer than their rice counterparts, with similar baking losses but increased protein, phenolic and flavonoid content as well as antioxidant properties. The textural differences between lentil and rice cookies were not detrimental and could serve as a promising flour in gluten-free baking as assessed by a 61-person sensory panel.

A study evaluated the use of extruded chickpea flours at a 30% inclusion rate in nixtamalized maize tortillas (Bon-Padilla et al., 2022). Extrusion settings were optimized to produce the most functional flour using an extrusion temperature of 143^oC and screw speed of 138 rpm. Authors reported that the addition of extruded chickpea flour improved the sensory acceptability, nutritional and anti-hypertensive properties of the tortillas (Figure 22, 23). Another study evaluated chickpea/barley flour mixtures in the production of flatbreads where incorporation of up to 30% chickpea flour improved texture without significantly affecting the most sensory attributes of flatbreads (Mansoor et al., 2021).

A study by Jeong et al. (2021) evaluated a combination of heat-treated mung bean and cowpea flours blended with waxy rice flour to produce gluten-free muffins. The addition of pulse flours lowered the specific volume with increased final product hardness (most prominent at the 80% inclusion level) however, did improve the overall nutritional profile of muffins, particularly through increases in total protein content (Figure 25). Optimal physical, texture, and sensory appearance were obtained using a 1:1 pulse-rice flour blend, where sensory properties were nearly identical to those of 100% wheat-only control muffins.

Han et al. (2010) evaluated the use of multiple pulse flours (including desi chickpea, green lentil, red lentil, pinto bean, navy bean, and yellow pea) and yellow pea fractions to produce gluten-free cracker formulations. Crackers made in one and four-dot moulds scored well on the consumer sensory acceptance test with similar physical properties compared to commercial control crackers. Chickpea crackers were successfully scaled up in a commercial trial, containing 3-6 times more of the iron daily recommended value with otherwise similar nutritional properties to existing crackers in the marketplace. Another study successfully incorporated up to 40% chickpea flour in corn and potato flour-based cracker formulations (Kamel et al., 2020). The addition of chickpea flour increased the protein content and enhanced the amino acid profile. The sensory properties of the crackers were well received by panellists.

The high protein and fibre content of pulse flours will typically result in increased water absorption, often described as stickier doughs. The sticky doughs are accompanied by an increase in dough development time that is attributed to the interaction between pulse proteins and gluten which delays hydration and the gluten network development (Kohajdova et al. 2013). As a result, dough stability is often accordingly decreased. It has been suggested to alleviate the effects of pulse inclusion on dough stickiness, the optimal water inclusion level should be reduced (Aiken, 2016; Xing et al. 2021) or the inclusion level can be adjusted so that minimal effects on dough handling occur. For example, Bourre et al. (2019) reported that the addition of 10% roasted, split yellow pea flour did not affect dough rheology. The addition of dough strengtheners and conditioners such as vital wheat gluten and hydrocolloids are also commonly applied in commercial baking to improve the dough handling of pulse-containing products.

The addition of pulse flour into baked systems will typically result in a darker crumb colour as a result of Maillard and caramelization reactions during baking. The intrinsic colour of the pulse will also have an effect on the end product colour; where green pea flour may increase green hues or red lentil flour might increase red hues in the final product. Some pulse types, such as navy beans, have little colour pigmentation which results in smaller differences in the colour of baked products.

A large proportion of grassy, beany, and bitter off-flavours and aromas from pulses are the products of the enzymatic degradation of linoleic and linolenic acid by lipoxygenase that is initiated during harvest and transportation of the crop, further catalyzed as air is introduced during dough mixing (Krause et al, 2022b). Krause et al. evaluated the inclusion of yellow pea, green pea, chickpea, lentil and heat-treated lupin flour on the production of volatile compounds (VOCs) in cakes. The lipoxygenase activity of raw pulse flours ranged from 2510-4350 nkat/g resulting in significantly higher total VOC content for batters and cakes relative to the control. Interestingly, batters containing chickpea and lentil flours, displayed lower concentrations of total VOC content than batters containing yellow and green pea flour. This was attributed to the higher concentration of antioxidant compounds such as polyphenols in chickpeas and lentils that could serve to decelerate the oxidative reaction of lipoxygenase. The inactivation of lipoxygenase activity as a result of the heat treatment applied to lupin flour corresponded to minimal concentrations of VOC comparable to the control. Heat treatments that inactivate lipoxygenase activity are commonly applied by industry as a tool to produce flours with decreased intensity of off-flavours and aromas. Otherwise, careful selection of substitution rates and flavour masking ingredients (ex: cocoa) can be applied to minimize the influence of pulse flour ingredients in baked goods.

Particle size distribution is one of the most important parameters to consider when sourcing a pulse flour for baked goods as it significantly affects its processability and ease of handling. Finer ground flours display lower water absorption due to differences in the association between protein and starch and the degree of starch damage (Zucco et al., 2011). Fine flours are typically preferred as less water is required during mixing to sufficiently hydrate the protein network while still maintaining a machinable dough. Bourre et al. (2019) found that bread doughs produced using 10% finely ground pulse flours (90% of particles < 300 mm) displayed lower water absorption, higher pasting viscosity, as well as superior bread scores with a tighter crumb structure. In this study, particle size was not found to significantly influence bread volume or sensory characteristics. Gomez et al. (2022) reported that more evenly distributed particles were easier to include and produced a more cohesive dough in muffins containing 10% pea flour. Interestingly, cookies produced from 23-75% inclusion of coarse pulse flour (90% of particles <500 mm,) resulted in a softer texture with an increased spread ratio (Zucco et al., 2011). Differences in the particle size distribution based on the type of baked product evaluated emphasize the importance when sourcing pulse flours for baking.

Percent starch damage (A) and water absorption capacity (B) for pulse flours milled to different particle size distributions using various screen sizes. Crumb firmness (C) is reported for bread baked substituting 20% of wheat flour in the formulation; constant baking absorption levels were applied for loaves of bread within pulse market classes using optimized mix and proof times. Letter differences within a pulse market class indicate significant differences (p<0.05) between means. Data adapted from Bourre et al. (2019)

Additional processing may be applied to the pulse seed prior to milling or on the resulting flour to influence its composition, functionality and sensory properties. The most common commercially applied technique is the use of heat or steam to improve flavour and aroma. Kotsiou et al. (2021) reported that bread formulated with 10-20% roasted, split yellow pea flour effectively inhibited the beany and grass-like off-flavour notes present in raw pea flour formulations. At the 10% inclusion level, no differences were observed on dough rheological performance, bread texture and shelf life. Frolich et al. (2021) evaluated the effects of infrared heating and roasting on the resulting yellow pea, navy bean and faba bean flour performance when incorporated at a rate of 30% in pita and tortilla formulations. The applied treatments were responsible for a reduction in the seed moisture content that increased the level of starch damage that occurred during milling. As a result, thermally treated flour displayed increased water absorption capacities that were also attributed to the partial thermal denaturation of proteins. Infrared heat treatment was found to be most successful in the reduction of off-flavours for both pita and tortillas with the highest purchase intent scores after consumer sensory panels. Roasted pulse flours have also been reported to produce a darker crust colour in baked products than raw or alternative heat treatments.

Each pulse type is unique and thus differently affects the final product quality of baked goods, most notably are differences in composition and seed characteristics including size and colour. The table below highlights reported differences in product quality by pulse type:

Improvements in the nutritional profile of baked goods because of pulse flour addition often comes at the expense of final product quality. However, modifications to either the formulation and/or baking process have been studied for their effects on improving final product quality.

Effect of Baking Time

Millar et al. (2017) evaluated the effect of increasing the baking time at 175 ^oC from 21 to 31 min for crackers formulated with 40% faba bean, yellow pea, and green pea flours. Water activity of crackers baked at 21 minutes was significantly higher. At prolonged baking times, Maillard browning was responsible for intensifying colour deviations, where crackers displayed increased golden colour and red hues even when green pea flour was applied. The effect of baking time on cracker texture was dependent on pulse type, whereby faba bean crackers baked for 31 min and yellow pea crackers baked for 21 min were the hardest.

Effect of Mixing Time

Krause et al. (2022c) identified the duration of mixing after oil addition in sponge cake systems to have an influence on the potential development of volatile compounds associated with off-flavors and aromas in the final product. This was hypothesized to the be result of a prolonged point of contact between lipoxygenase with fatty acids that may facilitate their oxidation. The mixing time after the addition of oil was identified specifically due to its importance in creating a more uniformly distributed dough with smaller air bubbles and fat particles that results in larger surface areas for chemical reactions to occur. Extension of the mixing time after flour addition alone did not result in any significant changes in the primary or secondary metabolites of lipid oxidation and thus had no apparent effect on the concentration of volatile compounds.

Effect of Pre-Ferment and Vital Wheat Gluten Addition

Bread formulated with 20% lupin flour was produced using two baking systems in conjunction with 0-5% addition of vital gluten powder (Pleming et al., 2021). The first baking system evaluated represented a rapid process in which all ingredients were mixed with vital wheat gluten to produce a dough, then rested (20 min at 28 ^oC) moulded, proofed (45 min at 38^oC, 85% RH) and baked for 12 minutes at 214 ^oC. The alternative baking system applied incorporated a sponge & dough process in which 70% of the water and flour were mixed with malt flour, calcium dihydrogen orthophosphate, ammonium sulphate, ascorbic acid and dry active yeast that was allowed to ferment for 45 min at 28 ^oC to produce a “sponge”. After fermentation, the sponge was mixed with remaining flour, water, vital wheat gluten, fat, sugar and salt before entering the same mixing, moulding, proofing and baking process as applied to the rapidly baked bread. The pre-ferment applied in the sponge and dough process allowed for more time for the lupin protein and fibre components to bind water, lessening the free water available in the system. As a result, the rate of staling for breads produced using the sponge and dough process was decreased, with further retarding upon the addition of vital wheat gluten. Vital wheat gluten addition was instrumental in improving the dough handling, bread loaf volume, and final crumb texture of breads formulated with lupin flour.

When vital wheat gluten cannot be used:

• The addition of xanthan gum to gluten-free, rice-chickpea biscuits has been reported to improve springiness, cohesiveness and adhesiveness with accompanying increases in hardness and elasticity (Bankadri et al.)
• The addition of proteases was successful in inhibiting the development of large protein aggregates responsible for disrupting the starch-gel structure that contributes to texture in gluten-free bread, ensuring a more cohesive and continuous dough structure with softer crumb (Renzetti et al., 2022)
• Microwave-infrared cooking as an alternative to conventional baking produced legume cakes with higher specific volume although greater weight loss and more profound crust colour changes (Ozkahraman et al., 2016).

The inclusion of dextrans in sprouted barley and lentil flour sourdough resulted in improved final product structure (Perri et al., 2021)

Effect of lupin variety and gluten addition level on optimum water absorption level (top), dough mixing time (middle) and bread volume (bottom) for bread formulated with 20% lupin flour produced using the sponge and dough (left) or rapid (right) breadmaking process. Control is wheat-only bread, data adapted from Pleming et al. (2021).

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